European Union Energy Security: Constructing a “Shelter” for Small States’ Energy Security Preservation

Authors

Keywords:

Energy security, Regional development, EU integration, Single energy market, Small states

Abstract

Energy security has been one of the most important issues in the European Union over the past few years. Although the debate has focused primarily on the approach of the main EU powers, this research aims at studying the impact of small Member States’ size on their energy security in the EU. Then it provides proposals to safeguard the energy security of EU small countries by providing a comprehensive interpretation of the term alliance in shelter theory. Applying the composed “smallness” index and the quantitative method, the results imply a direct relationship between the small states’ size and energy security in the first step. The study shows that such a relationship cannot be proven in non-small States. Although the EU has tried to strengthen collective energy security in Member States, such differences show that complementary policies are needed to ensure energy security in small countries. Given an extensive interpretation of “alliance” in shelter theory, this research proposes deep integration of the small states’ energy infrastructure in order to ensure their energy security. In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, where the EU’s energy security, especially in the small states, is more fragile than ever, adopting such a policy seems more vital.

References

AMBER GRID. (2021). Gas pipeline connection between Poland and Lithuania (GIPL). Available at: https://www.ambergrid.lt/lt/projektai/dujotiekiu-jungtis-tarp-lenkijos-ir-lietuvos-gipl [Accessed 3 June 2021].
ANG, B., CHOONG, W. and NG, T. (2015). Energy security: definition, dimension and indexes. In: Renewable and sustainable energy review. [online]. Vol. 42, pp. 1077-1093. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.064.
AUGUTIS, J., KRIKŠTOLAITIS, R., MARTISAUSKAS, L. and PECIULYTE, S. (2012). Energy security level assessment technology. In: Applied Energy. [online]. Vol. 97, pp. 143-149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.11.032.
AUGUTIS, J., KRIKŠTOLAITIS, R., MARTIŠAUSKAS, L., URBONIENĖ, S., URBONAS, R. and UŠPURIENĖ, A. B. (2020). Analysis of energy security level in the Baltic States based on indicator approach. In: Energy. [online]. Vol. 199, pp. 117427. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117427.
BAGLIANI, M., DANSERO, E. and PUTTILLI, M. (2010). Territory and energy sustainability: the challenge of renewable energy sources. In: Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. [online]. Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 457-472. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09640561003694336.
BAHŞI, H., BULAKH, A., JERMALAVIČIUS, T., PETKUS, A. and THEISEN, N. (2018). The Geopolitics of Power Grids–Political and Security Aspects of Baltic Electricity Synchronization. Tallinn: The International Centre for Defence and Security (ICDS).
BALDACCHINO, G. (2009). Thucydides or Kissinger? A Critical Review of Smaller State Diplomacy. In: Cooper A. F. and Shaw T. M. eds., The Diplomacies of Small States. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 21-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230246911_2.
BELYI, A. and PIEBALGS, A. (2020). Towards bottom-up approach to European Green Deal Lessons learned from the Baltic gas market. Florence: European University Institute, pp. 1-12.
BLOCKMANS, S. (2017). The Benelux approach to EU integration and external action. In: Global Affairs. [online]. Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 223-235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23340460.2017.1407581.
BOMPARD, E., E.CARPANETO, HUANG, T., PI, R., FULLI, G., PURVINS, A. and MUTULEC, A. (2017). Electricity independence of the Baltic States: Present and future perspective. In: Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks. [online]. Vol. 10, pp. 55-64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.segan.2017.03.003.
BP. (2020). BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2020. London: BP Publication.
BRODNY, J. and TUTAK, M. (2021). The comparative assessment of sustainable energy security in Visegrad countries. A 10-year perspective. In: Journal of Cleaner Production. [online]. Vol. 317, pp. 128427. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128427.
CHALVATZIS, K. J. and IOANNIDIS, A. (2017a). Energy supply security in the EU Benchmarking diversity and dependence of primary energy. In: Applied Energy. [online]. Vol. 207, pp. 465–476. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.07.010.
CHALVATZIS, K. J. and IOANNIDIS, A. (2017b). Energy Supply Security in Southern Europe and Ireland. In: Energy Procedia. [online]. Vol. 105, pp. 2916-2922. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.660.
CHERP, A. and JEWELL, J. (2011). Measuring Energy Security from Universal Indicators to Contextualised Frameworks In: Sovacool B. K. ed., The Routledge Handbook of Energy Security. New York: Routledge. pp. 330-355.
CHONTANAWAT, J., HUNT, L. C. and PIERSE, R. (2006). Causality between energy consumption and GDP: evidence from 30 OECD and 78 non-OECD countries. In: Surrey Energy Economic Discussion Paper Series (SEEDS). [online]. Available at: https://ideas.repec.org/p/sur/seedps/113.html [Accessed 19 June 2022].
CHUANG, M. C. and MA, H. W. (2013). Energy security and improvements in the function of diversity indices—Taiwan energy supply structure case study. In: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. [online]. Vol. 24, pp. 9-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.021.
COHEN, G., JOUTZ, F. and LOUNGANI, P. (2011). Measuring energy security: trends in the diversification of oil and natural gas supplies. In: Energy policy. [online]. Vol. 39, No. 9, p. 4860–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.06.034.
CRNČEC, D., SUČIĆ, B. and MERŠE, S. (2021). Slovenia: Drivers and Challenges of the Energy Transition to Climate Neutrality In: Mišík M. and Oravcová V. eds., From Economic to Energy Transition. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 247-282. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55085-1_9.
CZECH, A. (2017). Economic dimension of Polish energy security. In: Oeconomia Copernicana. [online]. Vol. 8, No. 3, pp 383-399. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24136/oc.v8i3.24.
ENTOSG. (2020,). European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas (ENTSOG). Available at: https://www.entsog.eu/sites/default/files/2020-01/ENTSOG_CAP_2019_A0_1189x841_FULL_401.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
ESPON. (2017). ReSSI Regional strategies for sustainable and inclusive territorial development –Regional interplay and EU dialogue; Targeted Analysis. Luxemburg: ESPON. pp 1-24, Available at: https://www.espon.eu/sites/default/files/attachments/Regional%20strategies%20for%20sustainable%20and%20inclusive%20territorial%20development%20-%20Estonia_0.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
ESPON. (2018). Territories and low-carbon economy (ESPON Locate). Luxemburg: ESPON. Available at: https://www.espon.eu/sites/default/files/attachments/Locate_final-report_main_report.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
ESPON. (2019a). ESPON BRIDGES Balanced Regional Development in areas with Geographic Specificities. Luxemburg: ESPON. Available at: https://www.espon.eu/sites/default/files/attachments/BRIDGES%20-%20Final%20Report.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
ESPON. (2019b). Territorial Scenarios for the Baltic Sea Region. Luxemburg: ESPON. Available at: https://www.espon.eu/sites/default/files/attachments/ESPON%20BT%202050%20_%20Main%20Report_0.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
ESPON. (2020). Cooperation perspectives for the Luxembourg Cross-border Functional Region; Thinking and planning in areas of territorial cooperation: ESPON ACTAREA spin-off. Luxembourg: ESPON. Available at: https://www.espon.eu/sites/default/files/attachments/Final%20Report%20ACTAREA%20spinoff%20Luxembourg_0.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
ESPON. (2021). ESPON Database. Available at: https://database.espon.eu/maindata/#/?theme=9 [Accessed 19 June 2022].
EUROPEAN COMMISSION. (2018a). Central and South Eastern Europe energy connectivity. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/default/files/monitoring_data_on_cesec_gas_projects_april_2018.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
EUROPEAN COMMISSION. (2018b). Estonian national energy and climate plan (NECP 2030). Tallinn: European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/ec_courtesy_translation_ee_necp.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
EUROPEAN COMMISSION. (2020a). Baltic energy market interconnection plan. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/topics/infrastructure/high-level-groups/baltic-energy-market-interconnection-plan_en [Accessed 19 June 2022].
EUROPEAN COMMISSION. (2020b). EU energy in figures Statistical pocketbook 2020. Luxembourg: Publications office of the European Union.
EUROPEAN COMMISSION. (2021). Energy union. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/topics/energy-strategy/energy-union_en [Accessed 19 June 2022].
EUROSTAT. (2021). Population on 1 January by age group, sex and citizenship. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/migr_pop1ctz/default/table?lang=en [Accessed 19 June 2022].
EVANS, G., NEWNHAM, J. and NEWNHAM, R. (1998). The Penguin dictionary of international relations. Westminster, London, England: Penguin Group USA.
FERMI ENERGIA. (2020). Teostatavusanalüüs väikse moodulreaktori (VMR) sobivusest Eesti energiavarustuse tagamiseks ja kliimaeesmärkide täitmiseks 2030+. Available at: https://fermi.ee/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/tuuma-raamat-final.pdf [Accessed 19 June 2022].
GRUBB, M., BUTLER, L. and TWOMEY, P. (2006). Diversity and security in UK electricity generation: The influence of low-carbon objectives. In: Energy policy. [online]. Vol. 34, No. 18, pp. 4050-4062. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2005.09.004.
HICKEY, E., CARLSON, J. and LOOMIS, D. (2010). Issues in the determination of the optimal portfolio of electricity supply options. In: Energy policy. [online]. Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 2198–207. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.12.006.
IEA. (2020). Key World Energy Statistics. Paris: International Energy Agency.
IGU. (2021). World LNG Report 2021. Barcelona: International Gas Union (IGU).
JÄÄSKELÄINEN, J., LAGER, J. and SYRI, S. (2019). Development of Energy Security in Finland and in the Baltic States since 1991. In: 16th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM). [online] Ljubljana: IEEE, pp. 1-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/EEM.2019.8916452.
JANG, Y.C., BANG, K.Y., LEE, K.Y. and KIM, K. (2014). Energy Security Level Analysis through Diversity Index: Focusing on Korean Cases. In: Energy Engineering. [online]. Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 93–101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5855/ENERGY.2014.23.2.093.
JIRUŠEK, M. (2020). The attitude of the Visegrad Group Countries towards Russian Infrastructural Projects in the gas sector. In: Energy Policy. [online]. Vol. 139, pp. 111340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111340.
KRATOCHVÍL, P. and MIŠÍK, M. (2020). Bad external actors and good nuclear energy: Media discourse on energy supplies in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In: Energy Policy. [online]. Vol. 136, pp. 111058. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111058.
KRAUSE, V. and SINGER, J. D. (2001). Minor Powers, Alliances, and Armed Conflict: Some Preliminary Patterns. In: Reiter E., and Gärtner H. eds., Small States and Alliances. Vienna: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH. pp. 15-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-13000-1_3.
KRUYT, B., VUUREN, D. V., VRIES, B. J. and GROENENBERG, H. (2011). Indicators for Energy Security. In Sovacool B. K. ed., The Routledge Handbook of Energy Security. New York: Routledge. pp. 291-312.
LE-COQ, C. and PALTSEVA, E. (2009). Measuring the security of external energy supply in the European Union. In: Energy Policy. [online]. Vol. 37, No. 11, pp. 4474–4481. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.05.069.
LUCAS, J. N., FRANCÉS, G. E. and GONZÁLEZ, E. S. (2016). Energy security and renewable energy deployment in the EU: Liaisons Dangereuses or Virtuous Circle? In: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. [online]. Vol. 62, pp. 1032-1046. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.069.
MAASS, M. (2009). The elusive definition of the small state. In: International politics. [online]. Vol. 46, No. 1, pp. 65-83. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/ip.2008.37.
MATSUMOTO, K., DOUMPOS, M. and ANDRIOSOPOULOS, K. (2018). Historical energy security performance in EU countries. In: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. [online]. Vol. 82, pp. 1737–1748. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.058.
MEARSHEIMER, J. J. (2001). The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. London and New York: W. W. Norton & Company Ltd. pp. 131-155.
MIŠÍK, M. (2015). The influence of perception on the preferences of the new member states of the European Union The case of energy policy. In: Comparative European Politics. [online]. Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 198-221. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/cep.2013.9.
MIŠÍK, M. (2019). External Energy Security in the European Union. London and New York: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351106535.
PAPSCH, J. (2021). Derogations and exemptions. In: Jones C. and Kettlewell W.J. eds., EU Energy Law, Volume I, The Internal Energy Market. Deventer and Leuven: Claeys & Casteels Law Publishing.
PAVLOVIĆA, D., BANOVACB, E. and VIŠTICAB, N. (2018). Defining a composite index for measuring natural gas supply security - The Croatia gas indicator. In: Energy Policy. [online]. Vol. 114, pp. 30-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.11.029.
POLLITT, M. G. (2019). The European Single Market in Electricity: An Economic Assessment. In: Review of Industrial Organization. [online]. Vol. 55, pp. 63–87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11151-019-09682-w.
PUMANERATKUL, C. (2018). A review of the energy situation in Slovenia. In: Journal for information, study and discussion of Global Resource Management. [online]. Vol. 4, pp. 45-57.
RUBEL, K. and CHALVATZIS, K. J. (2015). Electricity portfolio innovation for energy security: the case of carbon constrained China. In: Technological forecasting & social change journal. [online]. Vol. 100, pp. 267–76. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2015.07.012.
SCHMIDL, E. A. (2001). Small States and International Operations. In: Reiter, E., and Gartner, H. eds. Small States and Alliances. Vienna: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH. pp. 85-87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-13000-1_8.
SEKULIĆ, G., VULIĆ, M. P. and KOVAČEVIĆ, D. (2019). Economic & energy challenges of oil supply security of Croatia as EU member state. Split: Sveuciliste u Splitu. pp. 237-254.
SOVACOOL, B. K. (2010). Introduction: Defining, measuring, and exploring energy security. In: B. K. Sovacool, ed. The Routledge handbook of energy security. New York: Routledge, pp. 1-42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203834602.
SOVACOOL, B. K. (2011). Evaluating energy security in the Asia Pacific: Towards a more comprehensive approach. In: Energy policy. [online]. Vol 39, No. 11, pp. 7472-7479. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.10.008.
STIRLING, A. (2011). The diversification dimension of energy security. In: Sovacool B. K. ed. The Routledge Handbook of Energy Security. New York: Routledge. pp. 164-193
STIRLING, A. (1998). On the economics and analysis of diversity. Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU), Electronic Working Papers Series, No.28.
STREIMIKIENE, D. (2020). Ranking of Baltic States on Progress Towards the Main Energy Security Goals of European Energy Union Strategy. In: Journal of International Studies. [online]. Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 24-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14254/2071-8330.2020/13-4/2.
ŠTREIMIKIENĖ, D., STRIELKOWSKI, W., BILAN, Y. and MIKALAUSKAS, I. (2016). Energy dependency and sustainable regional development in the Baltic states: A review. In: Geographica Pannonica. [online]. Vol. 20, No. 2. pp. 79-87, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5937/GeoPan1602079S.
ŠVEDAS, R. (2017). EU Energy Island-Characteristics, Threats, and How to Break out of it: A Case Study of Lithuania. In: Lithuanian Annual Strategic Review. [online]. Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 179-209. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/lasr-2017-0008.
SZIKLAI, B. R., KÓCZY, L. Á. and CSERCSIK, D. (2020). The Impact of Nord Stream 2 on the European Gas Market Negotiation Positions In: Energy Policy. [online]. Vol. 144, pp. 111692. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111692.
TALUS, K. and AALTO, P. (2017). Competences in EU Energy Policy. In: Leal-Arcas, R. ed. Research Handbook on EU Energy Law and Policy. Cheltenham, Northampton: Elgar. pp. 15-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781786431059.00010.
THORHALLSSON, B. (2006). The Size of States in the European Union: Theoretical and Conceptual Perspectives. In: Journal of European Integration. [online]. Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 7-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07036330500480490.
THORHALLSSON, B. (2011). Domestic buffer versus external shelter: viability of small states in the new globalised economy. In: European Political Science. [online]. Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 324-336. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/eps.2011.29.
THORHALLSSON, B. (2019). Small States and Shelter Theory, Iceland’s External Affairs. London and New York: Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429463167.
THORHALLSSON, B. and STEINSSON, S. (2017). Small-state foreign policy. In: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.484.
TILLIROS, P. (2017). The Role of East Med Gas in the European Energy Security and the Best Cyprus Gas Monetization Option. In: Greek Energy Forum. Nicosia: University of Nicosia. pp 1-4.
TÖKÖLYOVÁ, T. (2016). Nation – branding in small – states foreign politics. In: Journal of Geography, Politics and Society, [online]. Vol. 6, No. 4 pp 7-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4467/24512249JG.16.022.5809.
VAICEKAUSKAITĖ, Ž. M. (2017). Security strategies of small states in a changing world. In: Journal on Baltic security. [online]. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 7-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/jobs-2017-0006.
VERMA, J. P. (2012). Data Analysis in Management with SPSS Software. New Delhi: Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-0786-3.
VIVODA, V. (2009). Diversification of oil import sources and energy security: A key strategy or elusive objective? In: Energy Policy. [online]. Vol. 37, No. 11, pp. 4615–4623. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.06.007.
WAGNER, W. M., BAUMANN, R. and RITTBERGER, V. (1998). Power and power politics: neorealist foreign policy theory and expectations about German foreign policy since unification. Retrieved June 2, 2020. Available at: https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/handle/10900/47204.
WIVEL, A. (2010). From small state to smart state: Devising a strategy for influence in the European Union. In: Steinmetz R. and Wivel A. eds. Small states in Europe, Challenges and Opportunities. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 15-29.
YOUNG, J. (2021). A Light at the End of a Tunnel or a Freight Train? A Comparative Analysis of Energy Transition in Croatia and Serbia. In: Mišík M. and Oravcová V. eds. From Economic to Energy Transition. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. pp 545-577. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55085-1_19.
YOUNG, J. and BRANS, M. (2020). Fostering a Local Energy Transition in a Post-Socialist Policy Setting. In: Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions. [online]. Vol. 36, pp. 221–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2020.05.003.
ZAHARIA, A., DIACONEASA, M. C., BRAD, L., LĂDARU, G.-R. and IOANĂȘ, C. (2019). Factors Influencing Energy Consumption in the Context of Sustainable Development. In: Sustainability. [online], Vol. 11, No. 15, pp. 4147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154147.
ZAPLETALOVÁ, V. and KOMÍNKOVÁ, M. (2020). Who is fighting against EU’s energy and climate policy in the European Parliament? The contribution of the Visegrad Group. In: Energy policy. [online], Vol. 139, pp. 111326. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111326.
ZENGA, S., STREIMIKIENE, D. and BALEŽENTISC, T. (2017). Review of and comparative assessment of energy security in Baltic States. In: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. [online], Vol. 76, pp. 185-192. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.037.

Downloads

Published

2022-07-01

How to Cite

Keypour, J. (2022) “European Union Energy Security: Constructing a ‘Shelter’ for Small States’ Energy Security Preservation”, Slovak Journal of Political Sciences, 22(1), pp. 48–78. Available at: https://sjps.fsvucm.sk/index.php/sjps/article/view/262 (Accessed: 8 November 2024).