Populist Radical Right Parties and the Rhetoric of Emotions
The Slovak Case Study
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.34135/sjps.230103Keywords:
Emotional appeals, Emotional rhetoric, Pathos, Cognitive appraisal theory, The populist radical right, The far-right, SlovakiaAbstract
This article analyses the emotional rhetoric of the populist radical right parties in Slovakia - the Slovak National Party (SNS) and the People's Party Our Slovakia (ĽSNS) - in their 2016 and 2020 election manifestos. Emotional rhetoric, or pathos, consists of emotional appeals, and this article looks specifically at four discrete appeals to emotions: retrospective anger and enthusiasm; and prospective fear and hope, and connects these emotional appeals with topics according to their relevance. This research utilises qualitative content analysis drawing categories from the field of political psychology. Unexpectedly, it is found that positive emotional appeals are generally more common than negative ones in the election manifestos of the populist radical right. The second finding is that populist radical right parties with government experience apply a very different strategy in their emotional rhetoric. The more extreme ĽSNS, without government experience, relies more on the negative emotional appeal of anger, and SNS, with extensive government experience, relies on the positive emotional appeals of hope and enthusiasm. Furthermore, these cases confirm the hypothesis that a populist radical right party that uses more appeals to anger has greater success in general elections.
References
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MACKUEN, M., MARCUS, G., NEUMANN, W. R. and MILLER, P. R. (2010). Affective Intelligence or Personality? State vs. Trait Influences on Citizens' Use of Political Information. In: APSA 2010 Annual Meeting Paper. [online]. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1643468 [Accessed 30. 6. 2023].
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MUDDE, C. (2007). Populist radical right parties in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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REDLAWSK, D. P., CIVETTINI, A. J. W. and EMMERSON, K. M. (2010). The Affective Tipping Point: Do Motivated Reasoners Ever “Get It”? In: Political Psychology. Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 563–593. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00772.x.
RICO, G., GUINJOAN, M. and ANDUIZA, E. (2017), The Emotional Underpinnings of Populism: How Anger and Fear Affect Populist Attitudes. In: Swiss Political Science Review. Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 444-461. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12261
RIDOUT, T. N. and SEARLES, K. (2011). Its My Campaign Ill Cry if I Want to: How and When Campaigns Use Emotional Appeals. In: Political Psychology. Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 439-458. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00819.x
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SONG, H. (2016). Why Do People (Sometimes) Become Selective About News? The Role of Emotions and Partisan Differences in Selective Approach and Avoidance. In: Mass Communication and Society. Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 47–67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2016.1187755.
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VALENTIM, V. and WIDMANN, T. (2023). Does Radical-Right Success Make the Political Debate More Negative? Evidence from Emotional Rhetoric in German State Parliaments. In: Political Behavior. Vol. 45, pp. 243-264 DOI: https://DOI.org/10.1007/s11109-021-09697-8.
VALENTINO, N. A., BRADER, T., GROENENDYK, E. W., GREGOROWICZ, K. and HUTCHINGS, V. L. (2011). Election Night’s Alright for Fighting: The Role of Emotions in Political Participation. In: The Journal of Politics. Vol. 73, No. 1, pp. 156-170. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381610000939.
VALENTINO, N. A., GREGOROWICZ, K. and GROENENDYK, E. W. (2009). Efficacy, Emotions and the Habit of Participation. In: Political Behavior. Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 307–330. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-008-9076-7.
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WIDMANN, T. (2021). How Emotional Are Populists Really? Factors Explaining Emotional Appeals in the Communication of Political Parties. In: Political Psychology. Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 163-181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12693.
ZAJONC, R. B. (1998). Emotions. In: Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T. and Lindzey, G. (eds.). The handbook of social psychology (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 591-632.
ŽÚBOROVÁ, V. and BORAROSOVÁ, I. (2017). The Myth of the Angry Voters: Parliamentary Election in Slovak Republic. In: Slovak Journal of Political Sciences. Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 34-48.
BRADER, T. (2005). Striking a Responsive Chord: How Political Ads Motivate and Persuade Voters by Appealing to Emotions. In: American Journal of Political Science. Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 388-405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2005.00130.x.
BRADER, T. (2006). Campaigning for hearts and minds: how emotional appeals in political ads work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
BRADER, T. and MARCUS, G. E. (2013). Emotion and Political Psychology. In: Huddy, L., Sears, D.O. and Levy, J. S. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 165-204.
BUSTIKOVA, L. (2019). Extreme reactions: Radical right mobilization in Eastern Europe. Cambridge University Press.
DUDEK, P. and PARTACZ, S. (2009). Functional theory of political discourse. Televised debates during the parliamentary campaign in 2007 in Poland. In: Central European Journal of Communication. Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 367-379.
ERNST, N., ENGESSER, S. and ESSER, F. (2017). Bipolar Populism? The Use of Anti-Elitism and People-Centrism by Swiss Parties on Social Media. In: Swiss Political Science Review. Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 253-261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12264.
FILIPEC, O. (2017). People’s Party–Our Slovakia: An Anti-system Party? In: Current Trends and Public Administration. Trnava: Faculty of Social Sciences UCM. pp. 21-30.
GARAJ, M. (2018). Facebook in use of Political Parties in Slovakia–Tool for Communication of Promotion: Far Right vs. Others. In: Marketing Identity. Digital Mirrors – Part II. Trnava: Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda v Trnave, Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie. pp. 98-108.
GARAJ, M., BARDOVIČ, J. and MIHÁLIK, J. (2021). Vplyv sociologicko-demografických charakteristík obce na volebné správanie a podporu M. Kotlebu. In: Political Sciences/Politické Vedy. Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 153-180.
GROOPMAN, J. (2004). The Anatomy of Hope. In: The Permanente Journal. Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 43-47.
HAIDT, J. (2003). The Moral Emotions. In: Davidson, R. J., Sherer, K. R. and Goldsmith, H. H. (eds.). Handbook of Affective Sciences. New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 852-870.
JUST, M. R., CRIGLER, A. N. and BELT, T. L. (2007). Don’t Give Up Hope: Emotions, Candidate Appraisals, and Votes. In: Marcus, G. E., Neuman, W. R., MacKuen, M. and Crigler, A. N. (eds.). The affect effect: dynamics of emotion in political thinking and behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226574431.003.0010.
KAZHARSKI, A. (2019): Frontiers of hatred? A study of right-wing populist strategies in Slovakia. In: European Politics and Society. Vol. 20, No, 4, pp. 393-405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23745118.2019.1569337.
KEMPER, T. D. (2004). Social Models in the Explanation of Emotions. In: Lewis, M., Haviland-Jones, J. M. and Barrett, L. F. (eds.). Handbook of Emotions (2nd ed.). London: The Guilford Press.
KEVICKÝ, D. (2022) Where is the populist radical right successful? Spatial analysis of populist radical right parties in Slovakia and Czechia, In: Eurasian Geography and Economics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2022.2151485.
KOTLEBA - ĽUDOVÁ STRANA NAŠE SLOVENSKO. (2015). 10 bodov za naše Slovensko! [online]. Available at: http://www.naseslovensko.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Volebný-program-2016.pdf [Accessed 30. 6. 2023].
KUKOVIČ, S. and JUST, P. (eds.). (2022). The Rise of Populism in Central and Eastern Europe. Edward Elgar Publishing. 224 pp.
LAZARUS, R. S. (1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. In: American Psychologist. Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 352–367. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.352.
MACKUEN, M., MARCUS, G., NEUMANN, W. R. and MILLER, P. R. (2010). Affective Intelligence or Personality? State vs. Trait Influences on Citizens' Use of Political Information. In: APSA 2010 Annual Meeting Paper. [online]. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1643468 [Accessed 30. 6. 2023].
MARCUS, G. E. (2013). The Theory of Affective Intelligence and Liberal Politics. In: Marcus, G. E. and Demertzis, N. (eds.). Emotions in Politics: The Affect Dimension in Political Tension. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 17-38.
MARCUS, G. E., MACKUEN, M. and NEUMAN, W. R. (2000). Affective Intelligence and Political Judgement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 199 pp.
MESEŽNIKOV, G. and GYÁRFÁŠOVÁ, O. (2016). Súčasný pravicový extrémizmus a ultranacionalizmus na Slovensku: Stav, trendy, podpora. Bratislava: Inštitút pre verejné otázky – Nadácia Hannsa Seidela. 52 pp.
MILLER, J. M., KROSNICK, J. A., HOLBROOK, A., TAHK, A. and DIONNE, L. (2017). The Impact of Policy Change Threat on Financial Contributions to Interest Groups. In: Krosnick, J. A., Chiang, I. C. A. and Stark, T. H. (eds.). Political Psychology: New Explorations. New York: Routledge. pp. 172–202.
MOUFFE, C. (2005). The "end of politics" and the challenge of right-wing populism. In: Panizza, F. (ed.). Populism and the mirror of democracy. London: Verso. pp. 72-98.
MUDDE, C. (2007). Populist radical right parties in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
MUDDE, C. and KALTWASSER, C. R. (2017). Populism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. 136 pp. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780190234874.001.0001.
NERB, J. and SPADA, H. (2001). Evaluation of environmental problems: A coherence model of cognition and emotion. In: Cognition and Emotion. Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 521-551. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930126254.
NOVINY ĽUDOVEJ STRANY NAŠE SLOVENSKO. (2020). [online]. Available at: http://kotlebovci.sk/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/noviny-rocnik-3-cislo-1.pdf [Accessed 30. 6. 2023].
PUSKÁSOVÁ, K. (2009). Súčasná Slovenská národná strana ako najstarší stranícky subjekt na Slovensku? In: Slovak Journal of Political Sciences. Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 62-92.
REDLAWSK, D. P., CIVETTINI, A. J. W. and EMMERSON, K. M. (2010). The Affective Tipping Point: Do Motivated Reasoners Ever “Get It”? In: Political Psychology. Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 563–593. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00772.x.
RICO, G., GUINJOAN, M. and ANDUIZA, E. (2017), The Emotional Underpinnings of Populism: How Anger and Fear Affect Populist Attitudes. In: Swiss Political Science Review. Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 444-461. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12261
RIDOUT, T. N. and SEARLES, K. (2011). Its My Campaign Ill Cry if I Want to: How and When Campaigns Use Emotional Appeals. In: Political Psychology. Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 439-458. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00819.x
ROBINSON, D. L. (2008). Brain function, emotional experience and personality. In: Netherlands Journal of Psychology. Vol. 64, No. 4, pp. 152–168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03076418.
SALMELA, M. and VON SCHEVE, C. (2018). Emotional Dynamics of Right- and Left-wing Political Populism. In: Humanity and Society. Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 434–454. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0160597618802521.
SEARLES, K. N. and RIDOUT, T. N. (2017). The Use and Consequences of Emotions in Politics. In: Emotion Researcher. [online]. Available at: https://emotionresearcher.com/the-use-and-consequences-of-emotions-in-politics/ [Accessed 21. 9. 2022]
SMOLECOVÁ, A. and ŠÁROVEC, D. (2021). Heading towards collapse? Assessment of the Slovak party system after the 2020 general elections. In: Slovak Journal of Political Sciences. Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 27-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34135/sjps.210102.
SONG, H. (2016). Why Do People (Sometimes) Become Selective About News? The Role of Emotions and Partisan Differences in Selective Approach and Avoidance. In: Mass Communication and Society. Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 47–67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2016.1187755.
STATISTICAL OFFICE OF THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC. (2020). Aktuálne výsledky - Priebežné výsledky - Parlamentné voľby 2020. [online]. Available at: https://www.vysledkyvolieb.sk/parlamentne-volby/2020/priebezne-vysledky [Accessed 28. 1. 2023].
STATSKINGDOM. (n.d.). Effect Size Calculator. [online]. Available at: https://www.statskingdom.com/effect-size-calculator.html [Accessed 30. 6. 2023].
STEENBERGEN, M. R. and ELLIS, C. (2006). Fear and Loathing in American Elections: Context, Traits, and Negative Candidate Affect. In: Redlawsk, D. (ed.). Feeling Politics: Emotion in Political Information Processing. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 109-134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403983114_7.
VALENTIM, V. and WIDMANN, T. (2023). Does Radical-Right Success Make the Political Debate More Negative? Evidence from Emotional Rhetoric in German State Parliaments. In: Political Behavior. Vol. 45, pp. 243-264 DOI: https://DOI.org/10.1007/s11109-021-09697-8.
VALENTINO, N. A., BRADER, T., GROENENDYK, E. W., GREGOROWICZ, K. and HUTCHINGS, V. L. (2011). Election Night’s Alright for Fighting: The Role of Emotions in Political Participation. In: The Journal of Politics. Vol. 73, No. 1, pp. 156-170. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381610000939.
VALENTINO, N. A., GREGOROWICZ, K. and GROENENDYK, E. W. (2009). Efficacy, Emotions and the Habit of Participation. In: Political Behavior. Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 307–330. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-008-9076-7.
VAN TROOST, D., VAN STEKELENBURG, J. and KLANDERMANS, B. (2013). Emotions of Protest. In: Marcus, G. E. and Demertzis, N. (eds.). Emotions in Politics: The Affect Dimension in Political Tension. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 186-203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137025661_10.
Výsledky parlamentných volieb 2012. (2023c). [online]. Available at: https://volby.sme.sk/parlamentne-volby/2012/vysledky [Accessed: 10. 8. 2023].
Výsledky parlamentných volieb 2016. (2023b). [online]. Available at: https://volby.sme.sk/parlamentne-volby/2016/vysledky [Accessed: 10. 8. 2023].
Výsledky parlamentných volieb 2020. (2023a). [online]. Available at: https://volby.sme.sk/parlamentne-volby/2020/vysledky [Accessed: 10. 8. 2023].
WEBER, C. (2012). Emotions, Campaigns, and Political Participation. In: Political Research Quarterly. Vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 414-428. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912912449697.
WIDMANN, T. (2021). How Emotional Are Populists Really? Factors Explaining Emotional Appeals in the Communication of Political Parties. In: Political Psychology. Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 163-181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12693.
ZAJONC, R. B. (1998). Emotions. In: Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T. and Lindzey, G. (eds.). The handbook of social psychology (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 591-632.
ŽÚBOROVÁ, V. and BORAROSOVÁ, I. (2017). The Myth of the Angry Voters: Parliamentary Election in Slovak Republic. In: Slovak Journal of Political Sciences. Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 34-48.
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2023-09-01
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Gazarek, A. and Uhrecký, B. (2023) “Populist Radical Right Parties and the Rhetoric of Emotions: The Slovak Case Study”, Slovak Journal of Political Sciences, 23(1), pp. 56–84. doi: 10.34135/sjps.230103.
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